Napoleon's invasion of Spain in 1808 started unrest within the colony of Mexico, which scented independence and won it in 1821 after a war which lasted II years and cost 600 000 lives. In 1836 the cattle and cotton barons of Texas, angered by the abolition of slavery, rebelled and declared their own independence. The resulting conflict developed into the Mexican War against the United States (1846-8). Mexico was heavily defeated and had to cede Texas, Arizona., California and New Mexico to the US for little more than US$28 million.
Conflict continued as Benito Juarez introduced reforms during two spells as president. His presidency was interrupted by a regime headed by Archduke Maximilian of Austria, who was installed as emperor by a French invasion force supported by conservative Mexicans.
A paternalistic but autocratic dictator, Porfirio Diaz, ruled from 1876 to 1910 and saw huge foreign investments pour in, 24 000 km (nearly 15 000 miles) of railway laid, industries and mineral resources developed and a civil service created. Unfortunately the resultant prosperity did not extend to the peasant masses; their land was systematically stolen and many of them were reduced to semi-slavery in mines and on plantations. A law passed by Diaz in 1883 resulted in 55 000 km2 (214 285 sq miles) of 'national' land being sold off at bargain prices to rich criollos, foreigners and his own personal friends. One wealthy family ended up with 50 ranches covering 30 000 km2 (11 583 sq miles).
There was increasing unrest, and finally revolution. When it came in 1910 it was confused, horrific and long-drawn-out, as peasants, small holders, bandits, Indians and even middle-class ranchers rose in fury. Diaz fled to exile in Paris and a succession of revolutionary leaders came to the fore. They included the teenage bandit Pancho Villa, who built a superb guerrilla army with guns and artillery captured in daring raids on the military trains of the government troops.
At appalling cost, the revolution triggered real social upheavals. A constitution of 1917 heralded major land reforms, advanced social welfare schemes, compulsory free education, minimum wages and the right to strike. Many of these aims would not be achieved until President Lazaro Cardenas held office, between 1934 and 1940. Only then were the great estates parceled out into ejidos, or common lands, and education made widely available.
Oil fields and railways were nationalized; power stations and the major airlines followed. Land reform remains a continuing process and agricultural development in some areas - such as the northwest - has been spectacularly successful. However, this has benefited mainly those companies or middle-class families, which have sufficient capital to invest in irrigation schemes, fertilizers and mechanization. Outside the growth areas, rural life continues to be something of a struggle.
Locals hypothesize that the legacy of Italian blood and culture in Cologne, colonized by the Romans more than 1500 years ago, makes the people more jovial and lighthearted. Cologne is the largest city on the Rhine.
Kolsch is not only the dialect spoken here but, also the name of their own top-fermented beer. There are more than 4,000 pubs, restaurant's and brewery taverns in Cologne.
Unlike many of the world's large cities, Cologne, with a population of over a million, gets better every day, there are more things to do and see, more new and innovative buildings... more
Travel is an opportunity to learn, whether geography, languages, history or other subjects.
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Cologne is situated on the beautiful Rhine River.