Three vast regions of ice exist on the earth. These are the Greenland and Antarctic continental icecaps and the large area of floating sea ice in the Arctic Ocean. The continental icecaps differ in various ways, both physically and climatically, from the polar sea ice and can be separately treated.
Icecap climate has by far the lowest average annual temperature of all global climates. Designated by Koppen EF, or polar climate of perpetual frost, this climate has no monthly average above freezing (32°F, 0°C). Available records indicate mean annual temperatures of -20° to -30°F (-30° to -35°C) for the Greenland icecap, but about -9°F (-23°C) for the Arctic Ocean. Compare this with the 10° to 25°F (-12° to -4°C) mean annual temperature of the tundra climate. The higher Arctic Ocean temperature is due to its sea-level altitude.
A shallow layer of air over the ice sheet is chilled severely and at times flows downslope under the influence of gravity toward the margins as a severe blizzard wind. It is reported that so great is the chill of the ice upon the air that tiny ice crystals sometimes form within a few feet of the ground. These may make a 'snowstorm,' above which the head and shoulders of a man rise clear. Driving blizzard winds pack the sand like snow into a hard, smooth pavement.
Cyclonic storms frequently penetrate Greenland, bringing precipitation to the icecap. The principal nourishment of the ice sheet is from this source.
Climate of the Antarctic icecap was little understood until a number of weather stations were maintained in the International Geophysial Year of 1957-1958. Temperatures in the interior have proved 'to be far lower than any place on earth. The Russian meteorological station 'Vostok,' located about 800 mi (1300 km) from the South Pole at an elevation of 11.440 ft (3488 m), may be the world's coldest spot. Here a record low of -126.9°F (-88.3°C) was observed. Note that this minimum value occurred near the end of the long polar night. At the pole itself (Amundsen-Scott Station), July, August, and September have averages of about -76°F (-60°C) Temperatures run roughly 50°F (28°C) higher, month for month, at McMurdo Sound because it is located close to the Ross Sea and is at low elevation.
A remarkable feature of the high, Antarctic interior is the intense chilling of air close to the snow surface. A strong temperature inversion develops in winter, so that the air near the surface may be 50° to 60°F (28° to 33°C) 'colder than air a few hundred feet higher. Downslope flow of this heavy, cold air layer causes blizzard winds to develop in favorable alley locations.
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